An excerpt from the Fall 2024 issue of British Columbia History.

Many locations in Victoria, such as Fort Rodd Hill and the BC Legislature, shown here around 1910, have been suggested as Tartarian architecture. (City of Victoria Archives Item M09575)

By Stephanie Halmhofer

“Maybe the History we’ve been told is a lie!” [1] “Their true history was covered up!” [2] “Hidden History!” [3] Beyond being in the short introductory paragraph I read on the r/Tartaria subreddit page, these are phrases I hear nearly every day as an archaeologist who studies pseudoarchaeology, or archaeological conspiracy theories.

History has long been a popular subject for conspiracism—its popularity can impact how people engage with history—especially in online spaces where the line between fact and fiction can become blurred. At first glance the idea of a technologically advanced Tartarian empire whose history has been hidden from us seems like a harmless conspiracy theory, but the blurring of the line can also open the gate to some very dangerous paths.

The terms misinformation, disinformation, and conspiracy theory are at times used interchangeably, but there are differences between them. Misinformation refers to false information that is shared whether or not there is intention to mislead. [4] Disinformation refers to false information that is shared with the intention to mislead. [5] And conspiracy theories are beliefs that an “organization made up of individuals or groups was or is acting covertly to achieve some malevolent end.” [6] Conspiracy theories rely on three principles: nothing happens by accident, nothing is as it seems, and everything is connected. [7]

Although conspiracy theories seem to be a relatively recent phenomenon, conspiracism has been part of North American culture since at least the 1890s [8] if not earlier. [9] However, following the 9/11 attack and subsequent advent of internet forums, [10] today conspiracy theories have become “normalized, everyday ways of understanding the world that are tangible in many different manifestations of contemporary culture.” [11]

There are distinguishable styles of communication between “traditional” pseudoscientific forms of conspiracism and newer antiscientific forms, which Federico Pilati and his research partners described as “conspiracy theory” versus “conspiracy-without-theory.” [12] Pseudoscientific traditional conspiracy theories “attempt to mimic the language and methods of science” [13] to present alternative theories with the appearance of academic credibility, although they rely on cherry-picked data and logical fallacies to reassemble scientific or historical facts into those alternative theories. Pseudoscientific conspiracy theories are common in longer-form formats such as internet forums, books, and television documentaries that appeal to quests for evidence and promote discussion of the evidence. [14]

In contrast, antiscientific conspiracy theories, or conspiracies-without-theory, are popular in short-form internet spaces such as social media. Antiscientific conspiracy theories reject such scientific methods and language, favour preconceived notions and subjective beliefs, and promote trolling and antagonistic discussions. Conspiracies-without-theory are less interested in evidence and alternative narratives and instead “appeal to emotions and values” to present “emotionally charged” post-truth narratives. [15]

Social media platforms provide an environment that favours fast-paced, emotionally-charged short-form content and immediate and confrontational interactions, ideal for conspiracies-without-theory. This is not to say that someone engaged in pseudoscientific conspiracism cannot also engage in antiscientific conspiracism in their social media posts—overlap happens. But recognizing the distinctions between conspiracy theories and conspiracies-without-theories is important to finding the most effective strategies for addressing them.

History, including archaeological tellings of history, has long been a popular subject for conspiracy theories through its perceived role as a powerful legitimizer of such narratives. [16] The past is used as a construction material that adds powerful temporal depth to contemporary conspiratorial narratives. [17] Archaeology is especially useful in this regard because it is viewed by conspiracy theorists as an authoritative science in the reconstruction of the past. Thus archaeology, as an authoritative science, can provide scientific “facts” to legitimize conspiratorial narratives. [18] And where there is no archaeology to support an alternative narrative, “pseudoarchaeology and pseudohistory can be fostered and supported to fill the breach.” [19]

Tartarian adherents commonly reference “horse and buggy,” as seen in this Tiktok video screenshot about Vancouver, to suggest that even as late as the early twentieth-century the tools and technology did not exist for constructing large, intricate buildings and, therefore, those buildings were actually constructed by technologically advanced Tartarians. (Screenshot from author)

The popularity of historical conspiracy theories, sometimes also referred to as “alternative histories” or “pseudohistories,” is made obvious through countless popular books, websites, television shows on traditional cable channels and on streaming platforms, and long videos on YouTube that present an astonishing variety of alternative narratives about human history. They are, however, united by what political scientist Michael Barkun termed as “stigmatized knowledge” claims: claims that “true” history has been forgotten, superseded, ignored, rejected, and/or suppressed. [20]

In stigmatized knowledge claims, stigmatization becomes proof of truth—something must be true because it has been rejected, suppressed, et cetera. Stigmatized knowledge claims are sticky, acting like a glue that easily binds historical conspiracy theories to additional conspiratorial narratives whose adherents are already primed to view claims of stigmatization as proof of truth. [21] As religious studies scholar David G. Robertson noted, “If one believes that what we are told about the present is a lie, then it makes sense that the past would be a lie too.” [22]

The reverse can also be true—if one believes that what we are told about the past is a lie, then it makes sense that the present may also be a lie. [23] The Tartaria conspiracy theory [24] is one such example of how historical conspiracy theories blur the line between fact and fiction and open the doors to more dangerous beliefs. Though it is based on elements from older conspiracy theories like Fomenko’s New Chronology, [25] Tartaria first appeared online between 2016 and 201826 and is currently very popular in social and digital media spaces like TikTok, Reddit, and YouTube.

In its most basic sense, Tartaria is an alternative history about an ancient, technologically advanced Tartarian civilization that spread around the world from north-central Asia, constructing magnificent cities everywhere it went. Tartaria is said to have disappeared some time in the 1800s when a sudden and global cataclysm of sorts resulted in a mud flood that destroyed or covered up Tartarian cities. The reason the world has not heard about Tartaria until now is because that history has been suppressed by hiding and altering historical records and demolishing surviving Tartarian structures.

The Tartarian conspiracy theory includes elements common to nearly all historical conspiracy theories, such as the colonization of locations around the world, the possession of advanced technology (especially regarding energy storage and conduction), the suggestion that people of the time were unable to build large architecture without intervention from someone more advanced, and that an environmental cataclysm destroyed Tartarian civilization.

But what sets Tartaria apart is its intense focus on historical architecture, predominantly elaborate styles such as Neo-Classical, Beaux-Arts, and Second Empire, as well as star-shaped bastion forts.

The presence of these architectural styles around the world is said to be evidence of Tartaria’s global spread, and external basement windows that are low to the ground are considered evidence that the building was partially covered by mud during the great mud flood, leaving only the tops of the buildings visible while the rest are buried underground. Red bricks are also important to Tartaria adherents, who believe the bricks were used to store energy.

Additionally, late nineteenth-century and early twentieth-century world’s fairs, which were full of elaborate but temporary structures, are argued to have been Tartarian capital cities that were “co-opted to teach a falsified history of the world.” [27] Tartaria adherents argue that the buildings were taken down not because they were always intended to be temporary, but rather because they were demolished as part of the plan to hide Tartaria. [28]

The Tartarian conspiracy theory references architecture found around the world, including in British Columbia. The Riverview Hospital in Coquitlam, for example, was suggested as Tartarian architecture in the popular r/Tartaria subreddit page. (Photo courtesy of Coquitlam City Archives)

Tartaria is more than just an alternative history; it is an alternative reality in which the line between what is real and what is fake is intentionally confused. History is replaced with fantasized narratives about the past that can be used to support idealized narratives about the present. Who the Tartarians were and why Tartaria’s history has been hidden has never been clearly defined in the Tartarian conspiracy theory and that is where an opening exists to connect Tartaria to more harmful beliefs. Historical revisionism, including the use of mythologized histories, is considered by experts to be a key characteristic of the global far right, and Tartaria is no exception. [29]

On the Tartaria Britannica website, for example, one can find articles arguing far-right white nationalist Great Replacement conspiracy beliefs [30] that ancient Aryans were violently exterminated by invading Tartarians. [31] And recently far-right American media personality Stew Peters [32] released a full-length documentary film about the Tartarian empire, drawing on antisemitic conspiracy theories that wealthy elites from the Rothschild family are involved in hiding the truth about Tartaria’s history. [33]

Because of their ability to connect their adherents to additional harmful beliefs, it is important to address historical conspiracy theories when we encounter them, whether in conversation with someone or if we see them online. Finding effective methods can be challenging, but there are several excellent guidelines available, such as The Debunking Handbook, [34] that outline different strategic methods and help us identify when to employ them. [35] Debunking is the most well-known method and refers to factually correcting incorrect information after that incorrect information has been spread. Although the efficacy of debunking is variable, following the suggested method of 1) simplistically stating the fact, 2) warning once that you are going to discuss disinformation, 3) explaining how that disinformation misleads, and 4) repeating the fact can help improve its efficacy.

Debunking is useful for traditional conspiracy theories that emphasize the importance of evidence, but in the case of antiscientific conspiracies-without-theories, which are not as interested in evidence, debunking is not likely to work. Instead, experts recommend pre-bunking in most cases. Pre-bunking refers to pre-emptively refuting disinformation and conspiracism to build resistance against it. Pre-bunking explains the techniques used to manipulate an audience and promotes critical thinking to enable people to recognize conspiracist and disinformative narratives when they encounter them. When people know what to look for, disinformation and conspiracism loses its ability to deceive. [36]

Not everyone who adheres to historical conspiracism does so with harmful intent. Not all Tartarian believers, for example, subscribe to the far-right beliefs that have been connected to Tartaria. But because historical conspiracism and revisionism have a long history of being used for harmful purposes and because the possibility exists that someone drawn to historical conspiracism can become connected to more dangerous beliefs, it is important that historical conspiracy theories be addressed as they are encountered.

Repetition and patience are key; you cannot change someone’s mind overnight. It is also vitally important to have accessible, factual information that can fill the hole that pre-bunking and debunking creates. Write public articles or blog posts. Write threads or posts on social media. Create or live-stream videos so that when someone opens Instagram or TikTok they’re less likely to encounter Tartaria first and, instead, will find themselves awestruck by human history as it is. No Tartarians needed.

Endnotes
1. Tartaria Uncovered: AntiquiTech, Tesla, Mud Flood & Beyond! Reddit, accessed May 7, 2024, https://web.archive.org/web/20240507224925/https://www.reddit.com/r/Tartaria
2. Tartaria Uncovered: AntiquiTech, Tesla, Mud Flood & Beyond!
3. Tartaria Uncovered: AntiquiTech, Tesla, Mud Flood & Beyond!
4. Stephen Lewandowsky et al., The Debunking Handbook 2020, p. 4, sks.to/db2020, https://doi.org.10.17910/b7.1182.
5. Lewandowsky et al., Debunking Handbook, 4.
6. Michael Barkun, A Culture of Conspiracy: Apocalyptic Visions in Contemporary America, 2nd ed. (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2013), 3.
7. Barkun, Culture of Conspiracy, 3–4.
8. Joseph E. Uscinski and Joseph M. Parent, American Conspiracy Theories (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2014), 105–29.
9. Jaron Harambam, Contemporary Conspiracy Culture: Truth and Knowledge in an Era of Epistemic Instability (London: Routledge, 2020), 8; Egil Asprem and Asbjorn Dyrendal, “Conspirituality Reconsidered: How Surprising and How New Is the Confluence of Spirituality and Conspiracy Theory?” Journal of Contemporary Religion 30, no. 3 (2015), 367–82.
10. Federico Pilati, Tommaso Venturini, Pier Luigi Sacco, and Floriana Gargiulo, “Pseudo-scientific versus Anti-scientific Online Conspiracism: A Comparison of the Flat Earth Society’s Internet Forum and Reddit,” New Media and Society, May 14, 2024, 3, http://doi.org/10.1177/14614448241252593.
11. Harambam, Contemporary Conspiracy Culture, 8.
12. Pilati et al., “Pseudo-scientific versus Anti-scientific Online Conspiracism,” 1.
13. Pilati et al., “Pseudo-scientific versus Anti-scientific Online Conspiracism,” 3.
14. Pilati et al., “Pseudo-scientific versus Anti-scientific Online Conspiracism,” 4.
15. Pilati et al., “Pseudo-scientific versus Anti-scientific Online Conspiracism,” 4. The Cambridge Dictionary defines post-truth as “relating to a situation in which people are more likely to accept an argument based on their emotions and beliefs, rather than one based on facts.”
16. James R. Lewis, “Excavating Tradition: Alternative Archaeologies as Legitimation Strategies,” Numen 59, no. 2/3 (2012): 202–21, https://www.jstor.org/stable/23244959.
17. Stephanie Halmhofer, “Manufacturing History: Atlantis, Aryans, and the Use of Pseudoarchaeology by the Far-Right,” in Conspiracy Theories and Extremism in New Times, ed. by Christopher T. Connor, Matthew N. Hannah, and Nicholas J. McMurray (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 2024), 53-82.
18. Lewis, “Excavating Tradition.”
19. Bettina Arnold, “Pseudoarchaeology and Nationalism: Essentializing Difference,” in Archaeological Fantasies, ed. by Garrett G. Fagan (Abingdon: Routledge, 2006), 156.
20. Barkun, Culture of Conspiracy, 26 – 29
21. Halmhofer, “Manufacturing History,” 59–61.
22. David G. Robertson, UFOs, Conspiracy Theories and the New Age (New York: Bloomsbury, 2016), 16.
23. Halmhofer, “Manufacturing History,” 61.
24. For an excellent introductory explainer of the Tartaria conspiracy theory, listen to Episode 273: “The Tartarian Empire,” QAnon Anonymous (a.k.a. QAA) Podcast. The episode is available on all major music and podcast streaming services. See also Zach Mortice, “Inside the ‘Tartarian Empire,’ the QAnon of Architecture,” Bloomberg.com, April 27, 2021, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/features/2021-04-27/inside-architecture-s-wildest-conspiracy-theory; and Brian Dunning, “Tartaria and the Mud Floor,” Skeptoid Podcast, February 2, 2021, https://skeptoid.com/episodes/4765.
25. Fomenko’s New Chronology argues that human history prior to the 1600s has been entirely fabricated. See the Wikipedia entry, “New Chronology (Fomenko), https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New_chronology_(Fomenko).
26. Mortice, “Inside the ‘Tartarian Empire.’”
27. Mortice, “Inside the ‘Tartarian Empire,’” para. 22.
28. Mortice, “Inside the ‘Tartarian Empire.’”
29. Halmhofer, “Manufacturing History,” 53-54.
30. Brian Duignan, “replacement theory,” in Encyclopaedia Brittanica Online, May 31, 2022, https://www.britannica.com/topic/replacement-theory.
31. True Aryan History, “The Mongol Empire Never Existed,“ Tartaria Britannica, March 4, 2023, https://web.archive.org/web/20231202085845/https://tartariabritannica.com/blog/the-mongol-empire-never-existed/.
32. Kiera Butler, “The Far-Right Bounty Hunter Behind the Explosive Popularity of ‘Died Suddenly,’” Mother Jones, May–June, 2023, para. 5, https://www.motherjones.com/politics/2023/02/stew-peters-the-far-right-bounty-hunter-behind-the-explosive-success-of-died-suddenly/.
33. Eyes on the Right, “Stew Peters Promotes Claim That the Capitol Was Built by a Race of Giants,” Angry White Men [blog], May 21, 2024, https://angrywhitemen.org/2024/05/21/stew-peters-promotes-claim-that-the-capitol-was-built-by-a-race-of-giants/.
34. Lewandosky et al., Debunking Handbook 2020.
35. Stephanie Halmhofer, “A [Semi-] Solicited Guide on Pre-bunking and Debunking,” Bones, Stones, and Books, February 2, 2024, https://bonesstonesandbooks.com/2024/02/02/a-semi-solicited-guide-on-pre-bunking-and-debunking.
36. Sander van der Linden, “Countering Misinformation through Psychological Inoculation,”in Advances in Experimental Social Psychology 69, (2024): 1–58, https://doi.org/10.1016/bs.aesp.2023.11.001.

Stephanie Halmhofer grew up in Steveston. She has worked as an archaeologist in several Canadian provinces and is currently also a PhD student at the University of Alberta. The narrowed focus of her research is on Brother XII and the Aquarian Foundation through which she studies the archaeology of conspirituality and conspiritual landscapes. More broadly, her research also examines the use of pseudoarchaeology in far-right and conspiritual worldviews.